University  of  Illinois  Bulletin 

Vol.  Ill  FEBRUARY  1,  1906  No.  9 

Published  Fortnightly  by  the  University. 

Entered  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  as  second-class  matter. 


DRAINAGE  -f  EARTH  ROADS 


IRA  O.  BAKER 


CIRCULAR  NO.  2 OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
ENGINEERING  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


REPRINTED  FOR  THE 

Chicago  & Alton  Railway’s  Good  Road  Train 

FEBRUARY  12.  1906 


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An  Engineering  Experiment  Station  was  established  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  by  action  of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  December  8, 
1903.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  Station  to  carry  on  investigations 
along  various  lines  of  engineering  and  to  study  problems  of  im- 
portance to  professional  engineers  and  to  manufacturing,  railway, 
constructional,  and  industrial  interests  of  the  state.  The  labora- 
tories of  the  College  of  Engineering  are  being  equipped  with  addi- 
tional apparatus  and  facilities  to  further  such  research  work.  It  is 
believed  that  this  experimental  work  will  result  in  contributions  of 
value  to  engineering  science  and  that  the  presence  of  such  investi- 
gations will  give  inspiration  to  students  and  add  efficiency  to  the 
College  of  Engineering. 

The  publications  of  the  Station  consist  of  Bulletins  which  con- 
tain the  results  of  original  investigations,  and  of  Circulars  which 
present  subjects  believed  to  be  of  value  to  those  addressed  although 
the  matter  itself  may  not  be  entirely  new. 

This  Circular  is  presented  to  assist  the  movement  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  wagon  roads,  and  it  is  hoped  that  it  may  be  help- 
ful to  those  having  in  charge  the  highways  of  the  state. 

All  correspondence  concerning  the  work  of  the  Station  should 
be  addressed  to  the  Engineering  Experiment  Station,  Urbana, 
Illinois. 


r * . L o,  r i U 


4 


DRAINAGE  OF  EARTH  ROADS. 


Ira  O.  Baker,  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Illinois; 
Author  of  Roads  and  Pavements,  Masonry  Construction,  Etc. 


Drainage  is  the  most  important  matter  to  be  considered  in  either 
the  construction  or  the  maintenance  of  any  form  of  road,  since  no 
road,  whether  earth,  gravel  or  broken  stone,  can  long  remain  good 
without  it.  Drainage  alone  will  often  change  a bad  earth  road  to 
a good  one,  while  the  best  stone  road  may  be  destroyed  by  the  ab- 
sence of  proper  drainage.  Water  is  the  natural  enemy  of  earth 
roads,  for  mixed  with  earth  it  makes  mud,  and  mud  makes  bad 
going.  The  rain  or  snow  softens  the  earth;  the  horses ’ feet  and 
the  wagon  wheels  mix  and  knead  it;  and  soon  the  road  becomes 
impassable  mud,  which  the  frost  finally  freezes,  and  the  second 
state  of  the  road  is  worse  than  the  first— for  a time  at  least. 
Further,  if  the  water  is  allowed  to  course  down  the  middle  of  the 
road  it  will  wash  away  the  earth,  and  leave  gullies  in  the  surface 
that  must  be  laboriously  filled  up  by  traffic  or  repairs.  No  road, 
however  well  made  otherwise,  can  endure  if  water  collects  or  re- 
mains on  it.  Prompt  and  thorough  drainage  is  a vital  essential  in 
all  road  construction,  and  particularly  so  for  earth  roads. 

A perfectly  drained  road  will  have  three  systems  of  drainage, 
each  of  which  must  receive  special  attention  if  the  best  results  are 
to  be  obtained.  This  is  true  whether  the  trackway  be  iron,  broken 
stone,  gravel,  or  earth;  and  it  is  emphatically  true  of  earth.  These 
three  systems  are  (1)  underdrainage,  (2)  side  ditches,  and  (3)  sur- 
face drainage. 

1.  Underdrainage. 

Any  soil  in  which  the  standing  water  in  the  ground  comes  at 
any  season  of  the  year  within  4 or  5 feet  of  the  surface  will  be 
benefited  by  drainage;  that  is,  if  the  soil  does  not  have  a natural 
underdrainage,  it  will  be  improved  for  road  purposes  by  artificial 
subsurface  drainage.  It  is  the  universal  observation  that  roads 
in  low  places  which  are  underdrained  dry  out  sooner  than  un- 
drained roads  on  high  land.  Underdrained  roads  never  get  as  bad 


as  do  those  not  so  drained.  Underdrainage  without  grading  is 
better  than  grading  without  drainage;  and,  in  general,  it  may  be 
said  that  there  is  no  way  in  which  road  taxes  can  be  spent  to 
better  advantage  than  in  subsurface  drainage.  Underdrainage  is 
the  very  best  preparation  for  a gravel  or  stone  road.  Gravel  or 
broken  stone  placed  upon  an  undrained  foundation  is  almost  sure 
to  sink  (perhaps  slowly,  but  none  the  less  surely),  whatever  its 
thickness;  whereas  a thinner  layer  upon  a drained  road-bed  will 
give  much  better  service.  Underdrained  roads  without  gravel  are 
better  than  graveled  roads  without  underdrainage. 

Objects  of  Underdrainage. 

Many  persons  seem  to  think  that  the  sole  object  of  underdrain- 
age is  to  remove  the  surface  water,  but  this  is  only  a small  part 
of  the  advantages  of  the  underdrainage  of  roads.  There  are  three 
distinct  objects  to  be  sought  by  the  underdrainage  of  a wagon  road, 
viz.:  (1)  to  lower  the  water  level  in  the  soil;  (2)  to  aid  in  drying 
the  ground  quickly  after  a freeze;  and  (3)  to  cut  off  the  underflow. 

1.  To  Lower  the  Water  Level.  When  rain  water  falls  upon 
the  surface  of  the  ground  it  sinks  into  the  soil,  and  continues  to 
flow  downward  until  it  reaches  soil  that  is  saturated,  that  is,  it 
flows  vertically  downward  until  it  reaches  the  surface  of  what 
may  be  called  the  underground  lake.  The  most  important  object 
of  underdrainage  is  to  lower  the  level  of  this  underground  lake. 
The  action  of  the  sun  and  the  breeze  will  finally  dry  the  surface 
of  the  road;  but  if  the  foundation  is  soft  and  spongy,  the  wheels 
will  wear  ruts  and  the  horses  ’ feet  will  make  depressions  between 
the  ruts.  The  first  shower  fills  these  depressions  with  water,  and 
the  road  is  soon  a mass  of  mud.  A good  road  can  not  be  main- 
tained without  a good  foundation;  and  an  undrained  soil  is  a poor 
foundation,  but  a dry  soil  can  support  almost  any  load.  The  lower- 
ing of  the  surface  of  saturation  not  only  improved  the  road  by 
keeping  the  surface  comparatively  dry,  but  also  prevents,  or  greatly 
reduces,  the  destructive  effect  of  frost.  The  injurious  effect  of 
frost  is  caused  entirely  by  the  presence  of  water,  and  the  more 
water  there  is  in  the  road-bed  the  greater  the  injury  to  the  road. 
The  water  expands  on  freezing,  the  surfkce  of  the  road  is  up- 
heaved,  and  the  soil  is,  made  porous;  when  thawing  takes  place, 


6 


the  ground  is  left  honeycombed  and  spongy,  ready  to  settle  and 
sink,  and  under  traffic  the  road  “breaks  up.”  If  the  road  is  kept 
dry,  it  will  not  break  up.  Underdrainage  can  not  prevent  the  sur- 
face of  the  road  from  becoming  saturated  with  water  during  a 
rain,  but  it  is  the  best  means  of  removing  the  surplus  water,  thus 
drying  the  surface  and  preventing  the  subsequent  heaving  by  frost. 

That  frost  is  harmless  where  there  is  no  moisture,  is  shown  on 
a large  scale  in  the  semi-arid  regions  west  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
The  ground  there  is  normally  so  dry  that  during  the  winter  when 
it  is  frozen,  cracks  form  half  an  inch  or  more  wide,  owing  to 
the  drying  and  consequent  contraction  of  the  soil,  which  shows 
that  there  is  no  expansion  by  the  freezing  of  water  in  the  soil; 
and  therefore  there  is  no  heaving  or  disturbance  by  frost.  In  this 
region  houses  are  often  built  on  the  very  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  no  trouble  is  ever  experienced  by  the  action  of  frost.  But  in 
Illinois  the  surface  soil  is  frequently  saturated;  and  therefore  it  is 
necessary  to  underdrain  to  prevent  the  heaving  of  the  frost,  and 
the  consequent  “breaking  up”  of  the  roads. 

2.  To  Aid  in  Drying  the  Ground  Quickly  After  a Freeze. 

When  the  frost  comes  out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring,  the  thawing 
is  quite  as  much  from  the  bottom  as  from  the  top.  If  the  land  is 
underdrained,  the  water  when  released  by  thawing  from  below  will 
be  immediately  carried  away,  which  is  particularly  important  in 
road  drainage,  since  the  foundation  will  then  remain  solid  and  the 
road  itself  will  not  be  cut  up.  Underdrainage  will  usually  prevent 
the  “bottom  dropping  out”  when  the  frost  goes  out  of  the  ground. 
This  effect  of  underdrainage  is  much  more  important  than  many 
seem  to  think,  but  a little  observation  will  show  its  value. 

3.  To  Cut  Off  the  Underflow.  A third,  and  sometimes  a very 
important,  object  of  subdrainage  is  to  remove  what  may  be  called 
the  underflow.  In  some  places  where  the  ground  is  comparatively 
dry  when  it  freezes  in  the  fall,  it  will  be  very  wet  in  the  spring 
when  the  frost  comes  out— surprisingly  so  considering  its  dryness 
before  freezing.  The  explanation  is  that  after  the  ground  freezes, 
water  rises  slowly  in  the  soil  by  the  hydrostatic  pressure  of  the 
water  in  higher  places;  and  if  it  is  not  drawn  off  by  underdrainage, 
it  saturates  the  subsoil  and  rises  as  the  frost  goes  out,  so  that  the 
ground  which  was  comparatively  dry  when  it  froze  is  practically 
saturated  when  it  thaws. 


7 


The  Method  of  Underdrainage. 


^ ^6 


The  Tile.  The  best  and  cheapest  method  of  securing  under- 
drainage is  to  lay  a line  of  porous  or  farm  tile  3 or  4 feet  deep 
on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  roadway.  The  ordinary  farm  tile 
is  entirely  satisfactory  for  road  drainage.  It  should  be  uniformly 
burned,  straight,  round  in  cross  section,  smooth  inside,  and  have 
the  ends  cut  off  square.  Tile  may  be  had  from  3 to  30  inches  in 
diameter.  The  smaller  sizes  are  usually  a foot  long,  and  the  larger 
sizes  are  2 or  2-^  feet  long,  but  usually  the  former.  The  cost  of 
tile  free  on  board  cars  at  almost  any  railroad  station  in  Illinois  is 
about  as  given  in  Table  1,  although  the  prices  may  be  a little 
higher  or  a little  lower,  depending  upon  the  demand  at  the  factory 
or  upon  the  freight  rate.  Y’s  for  connections  can  be  had  at  most 
factories,  but  they  cost  four  or  five  times  as  much  as  an  ordinary 
tile.  With  patience  and  a little  experience  ordinary  tile  can  be  cut 
to  make  fairly  good  connections. 

Before  the  introduction  of  tile  for  agricultural  drainage,  it  was 
customary  to  secure  underdrainage  by  digging  a trench  and  deposit- 
ing in  the  bottom  of  it  logs  or  bundles  of  brush,  or  a layer  of 
broken  stone;  or  a channel  for  the  water  was  formed  by  setting 
a line  of  stones  on  each  side  of  the  trench  and  joining  the  two 
with  a third  line  resting  on  these  two.  Apparently  it  is  still  the 
practice  in  some  localities  to  use  such  substitutes  for  ordinary 
drain  tile.  Tiles  are  better,  since  they  are  more  easily  laid  and 
are  less  liable  to  get  clogged.  Tiles  are  cheaper  in  first  cost,  even 
when  shipped  considerable  distances  by  rail,  than  any  reasonably 
good  substitute,  and  the  drains  are  much  more  durable. 

Tiles  are  laid  simply  with  their  ends  in  contact,  care  being  taken 
to  turn  them  until  the  ends  fit  reasonably  close.  In  some  localities 
there  is  apparently  fear  that  the  tile  will  become  stopped  by  fine 
particles  of  soil  entering  at  the  joints,  and  consequently  it  is  specified 
that  the  joint  shall  be  covered  with  tarred  paper  or  something  of 
the  sort;  but  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  where  immense  quantities 
of  tile  have  been  laid,  no  such  difficulty  has  been  encountered.  With 
a very  slight  fall  or  even  no  fall  at  all,  tiles  will  keep  clean,  if  a 
free  outlet  is  provided  and  if  they  are  not  obstructed  by  roots  of 
trees— particularly  willow. 

In  some  localities  it  is  apparently  customary  to  use  collars 
around  the  ends  of  the  tile  to  keep  them  in  line.  If  the  bottom  of 


8 


TABLE  I. 

Cost  and  Weight  of  Drain  Tile. 


SIZE 

Price  per 
1,000  feet 

Weight 
per  foot 

Average  Car  Load 

Pricee  of 
Connec- 
tions 

No.  pieces 

Rods 

4-inch 

tile 

$ 15.00 

6 lbs. 

6,500 

390 

8 .10 

5 “ 

4 

21.00 

8 “ 

5,000 

300 

.12 

6 “ 

4 4 

27.00 

11  “ 

4,000 

240 

.14 

7 “ 

4 4 

36.00 

14  “ 

3,000 

180 

.15 

8 “ 

4 4 

48.00 

18  “ 

1,200 

144 

.25 

10  “ 

4 4 

66.00 

25  “ 

800 

96 

.35 

12  “ 

4 4 

95.00 

33  “ 

500 

60 

.60 

14  “ 

4 4 

150.00 

43  “ 

400 

48 

.60 

15  “ 

4 4 

165.00 

50  “ 

300 

36 

.70 

16  “ 

4 4 

190.00 

53  “ 

250 

30 

.80 

18  “ 

265.00 

70  “ 

200 

24 

1.00 

20  “ 

4 4 

335.00 

83  “ 

166 

20 

1.25 

22  “ 

4 4 

4C0.00 

100  “ 

160 

19 

1.50 

24  “ 

4 4 

450.00 

112  “ 

150 

18 

2.00 

80  “ 

4 4 

750.00 

192  “ 

65 

10 

3.00 

the  trench  is  made  but  little  wider  than  the  diameter  of  the  tile, 
or  if  a groove  is  scooped  out  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  to  fit  the 
tile,  no  difficulty  need  be  apprehended  from  this  source. 

The  Size  of  Tile.  The  following  formula  is  sometimes  employed 
to  determine  the  amount  of  water  removed  by  a tile ; but  the 
formula  is  only  approximate,  and  results  obtained  with  it  are  only 
mathematical  guesses,  since  we  can  not  know  with  any  certainty 
the  maximum  rate  of  rainfall,  the  duration  of  the  maximum  rate, 
the  permeability  of  the  soil,  the  amount  of  water  retained  by  the 
soil,  the  effect  of  surface  water  flowing  onto  the  road  from  higher 
ground,  the  area  to  be  drained,  etc.  The  formula  is  useful  only 
in  a locality  where  there  is  no  local  experience  with  tile;  and  its 
chief  value  consists  in  showing  the  relation  between  capacity  and 
grade,  and  the  effect  of  a variation  in  the  diameter  of  the  tile. 

The  formula  is : 

A— 1 . 9 pp5 

in  which  A is  the  number  of  acres  for  which  a tile  having  a 
diameter  of  d inches  and  a fall  of  f feet  in  a length  of  1 feet  will 
remove  1 inch  in  depth  of  water  in  24  hours. 

The  object  of  underdraining  a road  is  to  prevent  the  plane  of 
saturation  from  rising  so  near  the  surface  as  to  soften  the  founds 
tion  of  the  road  even  during  a wet  time,  and  therefore  the  pro- 
vision for  underdrainage  should  be  liberal;  but  what  will  be  ado- 


9 


quate  in  any  particular  case  depends  upon  the  amount  of  traffic, 
the  local  conditions,  the  soil,  etc.  The  best  practice  in  agricultural 
drainage  provides  for  the  removal  of  0.5  to  1 inch  of  water  per 
day;  but  since  the  side  ditches  will  assist  in  removing  rain  water 
from  the  road,  it  is  probable  that  a provision  for  the  removal  of 
half  an  inch  per  day  is  sufficient  for  the  underdrainage  of  a road. 
If  there  is  an  underflow  of  water  from  higher  ground,  or  if  the 
ground  is  ‘ 1 springy,  ’ ’ then  the  ordinary  provisions  for  underdrain- 
age should  be  increased. 

It  is  not  wise  to  lay  a smaller  tile  than  a 4-inch  one,  and  prob- 
ably not  smaller  than  a 5-inch.  Tiles  can  not  be  laid  in  exact  line, 
and  any  tilting  up  of  one  end  reduces  the  cross  section.  Again,  if 
there  is  a sag  in  the  line  equal  to  the  inside  diameter,  the  tile  will 
shortly  become  entirely  stopped  by  the  deposit  of  silt  in  the  de- 
pression. 

It  is  sometimes  wiser  to  lay  a larger  tile  than  to  increase  the 
fall.  Again,  it  may  be  better  to  lay  a large  tile  near  the  surface 
with  smaller  fall  than  to  lay  small  tile  deeper  with  a greater  fall. 
Ordinarily,  the  deeper  the  tile  the  better  the  drainage,  although 
3Y2  or  4 feet  deep  is  usually  sufficient. 

The  Fall.  There  is  no  danger  of  the  grade  of  the  tile  being 
too  great,  and  the  only  problem  is  to  secure  sufficient  fall.  A num- 
ber of  authorities  on  farm  drainage  and  also  several  engineering 
manuals  assert  that  a fall  of  2 y2  or.  3 inches  per  100  feet  is  the 
lowest  limit  that  should  be  attempted  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions;  but  practical  experience  has  abundantly  proved  that 
a much  smaller  fall  will  give  good  drainage.  In  central  Illinois 
and  northern  Indiana  are  many  lines  of  tile  having  falls  of  only 
1-6  to  1-4  of  an  inch  per  100  feet  which  are  giving  satisfactory 
drainage;  and  not  unfrequently  the  ordinary  porous  tiles  laid  abso- 
lutely level  directly  upon  the  earth  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench, 
without  collars  or  other  covering  over  the  joints,  have  given  good 
drainage  without  trouble  from  the  deposit  of  sediment.  Of  course, 
extremely  flat  grades  are  less  desirable  than  steeper  ones,  since 
larger  tiles  must  be  used,  and  greater  care  must  be  exercised  in 
laying  them,  and  there  is  more  risk  of  the  drain  becoming  ob- 
structed; but  these  extremely  flat  grades  are  sometimes  all  that 
can  be  obtained,  and  such  drains  abundantly  justify  the  expense 
of  their  construction. 


10 


If  possible  at  reasonable  expense,  the  grade  should  be  at  least 
2 inches  per  100  feet;  and  should  never  be  less  than  y2  inch 
per  100  feet  unless  absolutely  necessary.  On  level  or  nearly  level 
ground,  the  fall  may  be  increased  by  laying  the  tile  at  the  upper 
end  shallower  than  at  the  lower. 

Laying  the  Tile.  It  is  unwise  to  enter  upon  any  detailed  discus- 
sion of  the  art  of  laying  the  tile.  The  individual  tiles  should  be 
laid  in  line  both  vertically  and  horizontally,  with  as  small  joints 
at  the  end  as  practicable.  Care  should  also  be  taken  that  the  tile 
is  laid  to  a true  grade,  particularly  if  the  fall  is  small,  for  if  there 
is  a sag  it  will  become  filled  with  sediment,  or  if  there  is  a crest 
silt  will  be  deposited  just  above  it.  The  drain  should  have  a free 
and  adequate  outlet.  The  end  of  the  line  of  tile  should  be  pro- 
tected by  masonry,  by  plank  nailed  to  posts,  or  by  replacing  three 
or  four  tiles  at  the  lower  end  by  an  iron  pipe  or  by  a wooden  box. 

The  prevailing  prices  for  laying  tile  in  loam  with  clay  subsoil 
is  about  as  follows:  for  8-inch  tile  or  less  10  cents  per  rod  for 
each  foot  of  depth;  for  9-inch,  11  cents;  for  12-inch,  14  cents;  for 
15-inch,  17  cents;  and  for  16-inch,  18  cents.  To  aid  in  remem- 
bering the  above  data,  notice  that  the  price  is  10  cents  per  rod  per 
foot  of  depth  for  8-inch  tile  or  less,  with  an  increase  of  1 cent  for 
each  additional  inch  of  diameter. 

The  cost  of  a mile  of  5-inch  tile  drain  is  usually  from  $200  to 
$250,  exclusive  of  freight  on  the  tile.  If  there  is  any  considerable 
amount  of  work,  the  above  prices  for  the  smaller  tile  can  be  re- 
duced 10  to  20  per  cent.  A tile  drain  is  a permanent  improvement 
with  no  expense  for  maintenance,  the  benefit  being  immediate  and 
certain;  and  therefore  it  is  doubtful  if  money  can  be  spent  on 
earth  roads  to  better  advantage  than  in  laying  tile. 

One  or  Two  Lines?  Usually  a line  of  tile  2 y2  to  3 feet  deep 
under  the  ditch  at  one  side  of  the  road  will  give  sufficient  drainage. 
Some  tests  made  by  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
(not  yet  published)  seem  to  indicate  that  one  line  will  give  fairly 
good  drainage  under  the  most  adverse  conditions.  The  experiment 
consisted  in  the  drainage  of  a piece  of  land  selected  as  the  worst 
that  could  be  found  in  a part  of  the  state  notorious  as  having  a 
large  area  of  hard-pan  which  it  was  generally  considered  could  not 
be  underdrained  “because  the  soil  held  water  like  a jug.”  Lines 
of  tile  were  laid  2 y2  feet  deep  and  50  feet  apart.  The  water  level 


/ 


11 

at  a point  midway  between  the  lines  of  tiles  was  lowered  18  inches, 
when  at  the  same  time  the  water  level  in  the  undrained  portion  of 
the  field  was  only  6 inches  below  the  surface.  In  this  case  the 
surface  of  the  ground  water  had  a slope  of  1 foot  in  25  feet. 

A few  other  observations  seem  to  confirm  the  above  result  for 
the  slope  of  the  surface  of  saturation  in  a retentive  soil.  The  exact 
form  of  the  surface  of  saturation  is  not  known,  but  it  is  known  to 
be  a curve  slightly  convex  upward.  The  inclination  varies  with  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  is  most  convex  near  the  tile,  and  is  most  convex 
immediately  after  a rain  and  gradually  thereafter  approaches  an 
inclined  plane. 

The  traveled  portion  is  usually  not  more  than  50  feet  wide,  and 
therefore  a single  line  of  tile  21/2  to  3 feet  below  the  bottom  of  the 
side  ditch,  if  of  adequate  size,  will  give  nearly  perfect  drainage; 
and  a second  line  will  not  greatly  improve  it.  For  example,  in 
Fig.  1,  if  A represents  the  first  line  of  tile,  the  surface  of  the 
ground  water  is  represented  by  the  lines  ABC. 


Fig.  1.  Relative  Effect  of  One  Line  and  of  Two  Lines  of  Tile. 


If  a second  line  of  tile,  D,  is  laid,  the  water  surface  will  be 
A B D,  and  the  second  line  will  drain  only  the  comparatively  small 
portion  C B D.  The  diagram  shows  that  a single  line  well  below 
the  surface  is  far  better  than  two  shallow  ones.  For  example, 
lowering  the  tile  A 6 inches,  lowers  the  water  surface  to  A'C', 
which  represents  better  drainage  than  the  line  A B D with  the  two 
lines  of  tile. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  for  agricultural  drainage  it  is 
sufficient  to  place  the  lines  of  tile  100  feet  apart,  provided  they 
are  of  reasonable  size  and  at  sufficient  depth.  A tile  will  give 
agricultural  drainage  50  feet  on  either  side  of  it;  that  is,  a tile 
under  only  one  side  ditch  will  give  agricultural  drainage  of  the 
traveled  way.  More  thorough  drainage  is  required  for  agricultural 


12 


than  for  road  purposes,  since  when  damp  most  soils  will  pack, 
which  is  harmful  to  agricultural  land  but  beneficial  to  a road. 

The  above  seems  to  prove  that  one  line  of  tile,  if  of  proper  size 
and  at  sufficient  depth,  will  afford  sufficient  drainage  for  road  pur- 
poses; but  nevertheless  it  is  claimed  by  competent  authorities  that 
two  lines  are  sometimes  required.  In  some  localities  a stratum  of 
hard-pan  near  the  surface  makes  it  necessary  to  lay  the  tile  so 
shallow  that  two  lines  are  really  required;  and  sometimes  the  tile 
is  so  small  or  so  poorly  laid  that  one  line  is  insufficient. 

In  case  of  doubt  as  to  whether  one  or  two  lines  of  tile  are 
needed,  put  in  one  and  watch  the  results.  If  both  sides  of  the  road 
are  equally  good,  another  tile  drain  is  not  needed.  In  making 
these  observations  care  should  be  taken  not  to  overlook  any  of 
the  factors,  as,  for  example,  the  difference  in  the  effect  of  the  sun 
upon  the  south  and  the  north  sides  of  the  road,  the  effect  of  shade 
or  of  seepage  water,  the  transverse  slopes  of  the  surface  of  the 
road,  etc. 

Location  of  the  Tile.  Some  writers  on  roads  recommend  a line 
of  tile  under  the  middle  of  the  traveled  portion.  A tile  under  the 
middle  of  the  road  is  a little  more  effective  than  one  at  the  same 
level  under  the  side  ditch;  but  the  former  is  considerably  more 
expensive  to  lay,  since  it  necessitates  more  digging— whether  the 
tile  is  laid  before  or  after  the  road  is  graded.  With  the  same 
depth  of  digging,  a tile  under  the  side  ditch  is  more  effective  than 
one  under  the  center  of  the  road.  Further,  if  the  tile  is  under  the 
center,  there  is  liability  of  the  settling  of  the  soil  in  the  trench, 
which  will  make  a depression  and  probably  a mud  hole;  and  if  the 
tile  becomes  stopped,  it  is  expensive  to  dig  it  up,  and  the  doing  so 
interferes  with  traffic.  Finally,  if  the  road  is  ever  graveled  or 
macadamized,  the  disadvantage  of  having  the  tile  drain  under  the 
center  of  the  road  is  materially  increased. 

Some  writers  advocate  the  use  of  a line  of  tile  near  the  surface, 
on  each  side  of  the  trackway.  The  object  of  placing  the  tile  in  this 
position  is  to  secure  a rapid  drainage  of  the  surface;  but  very 
little,  if  any,  water  from  the  surface  will  ever  reach  a tile  so 
placed,  since  the  road  surface  when  wet  is  puddled  by  the  traffic, 
which  prevents  the  water  percolating  through  the  soil.  It  is  certain 
that  in  clay  or  loam  the  drainage  thus  obtained  is  of  no  practical 
value.  Many  farmers  have  tried  to  drain  their  barn-yard  by  laying 


13 


tile  near  the  surface,  but  always  without  appreciable  effect.  The 
-deeper  the  tile  the  better  the  drainage. 

While  a line  of  tile  on  one  side  of  the  road  is  usually  sufficient, 
there  is  often  a great  difference  as  to  the  side  on  which  it  should 
be  laid.  If  one  side  of  the  road  is  higher  than  the  other,  the  tile 
should  be  on  the  high  side  to  intercept  the  ground  water  flowing 
down  the  slope  under  the  surface.  Sometimes  a piece  of  road  is 
wet  because  of  a spring  in  the  vicinity,  or  perhaps  the  road  is 
muddy  because  of  a stratum  which  brings  the  water  to  the  road 
from  higher  ground;  in  either  case,  the  source  of  supply  should  be 
tapped  with  a line  of  tile  instead  of  trying  to  improve  the  road  by 
piling  up  earth. 


II.  Side  Ditches. 

The  side  ditches  are  to  receive  the  water  from  the  surface  of 
the  traveled  way,  and  should  carry  it  rapidly  and  entirely  away 
from  the  roadside.  They  are  useful,  also,  to  intercept  and  carry 
-off  water  that  would  otherwise  flow  from  the  side  hills  upon  the 
road.  Ordinarily  they  need  not  be  deep;  but,  if  possible,  should 
have  a broad,  flaring  side  toward  the  traveled  way,  to  prevent  acci- 
dent if  a vehicle  should  be  crowded  to  the  extreme  side  of  the  road- 
way. The  outside  bank  should  be  flat  enough  to  prevent  caving— 
an  important  matter  which  is  frequently  neglected. 

If  the  road  is*  tiled  as  previously  recommended,  the  side  ditch 
need  not  be  very  large;  but  it  should  be  of  such  a form  as  to 
permit  its  construction  with  the  “road  machine”  or  scraping 
grader,  or  with  a drag  scraper,  instead  of  requiring  to  be  made  by 
hand.  On  comparatively  level  ground,  the  proper  form  of  side 
ditch  is  readily  and  cheaply  made  with  the  usual  “road  machine.” 
An  example  of  this  form  of  ditch  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 


Fig.  2.  Proper  Form  of  Shallow  Side  Ditch. 


If  a larger  and  deeper  ditch  than  shown  in  Fig.  2 is  required, 
it  can  still  be  made  chiefly  and  cheaply  with  the  drag-scoop  scraper. 
For  an  example  of  a deep  ditch  of  this  form,  see  Fig.  3,  page  14. 


14 


A deep  narrow  ditch  is  expensive  to  construct,  and  also  expen- 
sive to  maintain,  since  it  is  easily  obstructed  by  the  caving  banks, 
by  weeds,  and  by  floating  trash.  Fortunately  the  shallow  ditch  is 
easy  and  cheap  to  construct  and  also  to  maintain.  If  it  is  neces- 
sary to  carry  water  along  the  side  of  the  road  through  a rise  in 
the  ground,  it  is  much  better  to  lay  a line  of  tile  and  nearly  fill 
the  ditch  than  to  attempt  to  maintain  a narrow  deep  ditch.  A tile 
is  very  much  more  effective  per  unit  of  cross  section  than  most 
open  ditches. 


Fig.  3.  Proper  Form  of  Deeper  Side  Ditch. 


The  side  ditch  should  have  a uniform  grade  and  a free  outlet 
into  some  stream,  so  as  to  carry  the  water  entirely  away  from  the 
road.  No  good  road  can  be  obtained  with  side  ditches  that  hold 
the  water  until  it  evaporates.  Much  ostensible  road  work  is  a 
positive  damage  for  this  reason.  Piling  up  the  earth  in  the  middle 
of  the  road  is  perhaps  in  itself  well  enough,  but  leaving  undrained 
holes  at  the  side  probably  more  than  counterbalances  the  benefits 
of  the  embankment.  A road  between  long  artificial  ponds  is  always 
an  inferior  one,  and  is  often  impassable.  It  is  cheaper  and  better 
to  make  a lower  embankment,  and  to  drain  thoroughly  the  holes  at 
the  side  of  the  road.  Public  funds  can  often  be  more  wisely  used 
in  making  ditches  in  adjoining  private  lands  than  in  making  ponds 
at  the  roadside  in  an  attempt  to  improve  the  road  by  raising  the 
surface.  It  is  cheaper  and  better  to  allow  the  water  to  run  away 
from  the  road  than  to  try  to  lift  the  road  out  of  the  water. 

When  the  road  is  in  an  excavation,  great  care  should  be  taken 
that  a ditch  is  provided  on  each  side  to  carry  away  the  water  so 
that  it  shall  not  run  down  the  middle  of  the  road.  Every  road 
should  have  side  ditches,  even  one  that  runs  straight  down  the  side 
of  a hill.  Indeed,  the  steepest  road  needs  the  side  ditch  most, 
although  it  often  has  none.  Frequently  the  water  runs  down  the 
middle  of  the  road  on  a side  hill  and  wears  it  into  gullies,  which 
are  a discomfort,  and  often  dangerous,  in  both  wet  weather  and  dry. 

In  a slightly  rolling  country,  the  side  ditch  frequently  has  no 
outlet,  and  the  water  is  allowed  to  accumulate  at  the  foot  of  the 


15 


slope  and  there  remain  until  it  is  absorbed  by  the  ground  or  seeps 
into  a tile  drain.  Under  such  conditions,  the  water  seeps  away 
very  slowly,  since  the  fine  silt  washed  down  from  above  forms  an 
almost  impervious  coating  which  practically  prevents  any  water 
from  percolating  through.  The  difficulty  could  be  remedied  by  pro- 
viding an  inlet  from  the  open  ditch  to  the  tile.  This  may  be  a 
well,  walled  with  plank  or  masonry  without  mortar  (except  near 
the  top)  and  having  a grating  in  the  side  or  top  through  which  the 
water  may  pass.  The  well  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  a man 
to  enter  it  to  clean  it,  and  should  extend  a foot  or  more  below  the 
bottom  of  the  tile.  Earth  roads  in  villages  and  towns  are  usually 
better  provided  with  such  inlets  than  country  roads,  but  both  could 
be  materially  improved  at  comparatively  small  expense  by  attention 
to  this  matter. 

If  it  can  be  prevented,  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  carry 
water  long  distances  in  side  ditches;  for  large  bodies  of  water  are 
hard  to  handle,  and  are  liable  to  become  very  destructive.  Side 
ditches  should  discharge  frequently  into  natural  water-courses, 
though  to  compass  this,  it  may  in  some  cases  be  necessary  to  carry 
the  water  from  the  high  side  to  the  low  side  of  the  road.  This  is 
sometimes  done  by  digging  a gutter  or  by  building  a dam  diagonally 
across  the  road,  but  both  are  very  objectionable.  A better  way  is 
to  lay  a tile  or  put  in  a culvert,  the  amount  of  water  determining 
which  shall  be  done. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  carry  water  a considerable  distance 
in  the  side  ditches,  as,  for  example,  when  the  road  is  in  excavation. 
This  requires  deep  ditches,  which  are  undesirable  and  dangerous; 
and  if  the  grade  is  considerable,  the  ditches  wash  rapidly.  In 
such  cases,  it  is  wise  to  lay  in  a line  of  tile  under  the  side  ditch, 
and  turn  the  water  from  the  surface  ditch  into  the  tile  at  intervals. 
This  can  be  accomplished  readily  by  inserting  in  the  line  of  porous 
tile  a Y section  of  vitrified  sewer  pipe,  with  the  short  arm  opening 
up  hill.  Of  course,  the  short  arm,  i.  e.,  the  vertical  arm,  need  not 
be  as  large  as  the  body.  If  necessary,  two  or  three  lengths  of 
porous  tile-  may  be  added  at  the  upper  end  of  the  Y to  make  con- 
nection with  the  bottom  of  the  open  ditch.  Earth,  sods,  or  stones 
can  be  piled  around  the  upper  end  of  the  tile  to  make  a dam  and 
to  hold  the  tile  in  place. 


16 


As  a rule,  side  ditches  will  not  have  too  much  fall,  but  some- 
times a ditch  straight  down  a hill  will  have  so  much  fall  as  to 
wash  rapidly,  in  which  case  it  is  an  advantage  to  put  in  an  ob- 
struction of  stone  or  brush.  In  extreme  cases  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch  is  paved  with  stones. 

m.  Surface  Drainage. 

The  surface  drainage  of  a road  is  provided  for  by  making  the 
traveled  way  crowning  and  keeping  it  smooth.  The  making  of  the 
road  crowning  in  the  beginning  is  a matter  of  construction,  and 
the  keeping  of  the  surface  smooth  is  a question  of  maintenance. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  water  upon  the  surface  of  the  road 
can  not  be  carried  away  by  the  underdrains  until  after  it  has  pene- 
trated and  softened  the  road  surface. 

Constructing  the  Crown.  The  slope  from  the  center  to  the  side 
should  be  enough  to  carry  the  water  freely  and  quickly  to  the  side 
ditch;  and  if  the  surface  is  kept  free  from  ruts  and  holes,  less 
crown  will  suffice  than  if  no  attention  is  given  to  keeping  the  sur- 
face smooth.  If  there  is  not  enough  crown,  the  water  can  not 
easily  reach  the  side  ditches;  and  hence  the  road  soon  becomes 
water  soaked. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  crown  may  be  too  great.  If  the  side 
slopes  are  so  steep  that  traffic  keeps  continually  in  the  middle,  the 
road  will  be  worn  hollow  and  retain  the  water  instead  of  shedding  it 
promptly  to  the  side  ditches.  With  the  ordinary  method  of  caring 
for  earth  roads,  more  water  stands  on  a very  convex  road  than  on 
a flatter  one.  If  the  crown  is  too  great,  it  is  difficult  for  vehicles 
to  turn  out  in  passing  each  other.  Again,  if  the  earth  is  piled  too 
high  in  the  middle,  the  side  slopes  will  be  washed  into  the  side 
ditches,  which  not  only  damages  the  road  but  also  fills  up  the 
ditches.  Further,  if  the  side  slopes  are  steep,  the  top  of  the  wheel 
will  be  farther  from  the  center  of  the  road  than  the  bottom,  and 
the  mud  picked  up  by  the  bottom  of  the  wheel  will  be  carried  to 
the  top  of  the  wheel  and  then  dropped  farther  from  the  center  of 
the  road  than  it  was  before,  each  vehicle  acting  like  a plow  and 
moving  the  earth  from  the  center  toward  the  side  of  the  road. 

The  slope  from  the  center  to  the  side  should  be  at  least  half  an 
inch  to  a foot,  or  1 foot  in  24  feet;  and  it  should  not  be  more 
than  1 inch  to  a foot,  or  1 foot  in  12  feet.  If  the  surface  is  well 


17 


cared  for,  the  former  is  better  than  the  latter;  but  in  no  case  is  it 
wise  to  exceed  the  latter  slope.  For  a diagram  showing  a cross 
section  of  a road  having  the  first  named  slope,  see  Fig.  2,  page  13, 
and  for  the  cross  section  of  a road  having  the  second  slope,  see  Fig.  3, 
page  14 ; and  for  a road  on  an  embankment,  see  Fig.  4. 


Fig.  4.  Proper  Crown  for  Road  on  Embankment. 


The  crown  should  be  greater  on  steep  grades  than  on  the  more 
level  portions,  since  on  the  grade  the  line  of  steepest  descent  is  not 
perpendicular  to  the  length  of  the  road,  and  consequently  the 
water  in  getting  from  the  center  of  the  road  to  the  side  ditches 
travels  obliquely  down  the  road.  If  the  water  once  commences  to 
run  down  the  center  of  the  roadway  on  a steep  grade,  the  wheel 
tracks  are  quickly  deepened,  stones  are  loosened  or  uncovered,  and 
the  road  becomes  rough  and  even  dangerous.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, it  is  necessary  to  construct  catch-waters,  “ water-breaks/ 9 
“hummocks,”  or  “thank-you-marms”  at  intervals  to  catch  the 
water  which  runs  longitudinally  down  the  road,  and  convey  it  to 
the  side  ditches,  thereby  preventing  the  formation  of  gullies  in  the 
road  surface.  These  catch-waters  may  be  either  broad  shallow 
ditches  or  low  flat  ridges  constructed  across  the  road;  and  they 
may  slope  toward  one  or  both  ditches.  In  the  former  case,  they 
should  cross  the  road  diagonally  in  a straight  line;  and  in  the 
latter  case,  in  plan  they  should  be  a broad  angle  with  the  apex  at 
the  center  of  the  road  pointing  up  hill.  There  is  little  or  no  differ- 
ence between  the  merits  of  the  ditch  and  the  ridge,  unless  the 
bottom  of  the  former  is  paved  with  gravel,  broken  stone,  or  cob- 
bles. The  ridges  are  more  common,  but  usually  are  so  narrow  and 
so  high  as  to  form  a serious  obstruction  to  traffic.  However, 
neither  the  ditches  nor  the  ridges  should  be  used  except  on  steep 
grades  where  really  necessary,  since  either  form  is  at  best  an 
obstruction  to  travel.  The  angle  that  the  catch-waters  shall  have 
with  the  axis  of  the  road  should  be  governed  by  the  steepness  of 
the  grade— the  steeper  the  grade  the  more  nearly  should  the  catch- 
waters  run  down  the  road.  They  should  have  a considerable 


18 


breadth  so  that  wheels  may  easily  ascend  them  and  horses  will  not 
stumble  over  them. 

Catch-waters  should  also  be  constructed  in  a depression  where 
an  ascending  and  a descending  grade  meet,  in  order  that  they  may 
collect  the  water  that  runs  down  the  traveled  way  and  convey  it 
into  the  side  ditches.  These  catch-waters  should  run  square  across 
the  road,  and  should  be  quite  shallow  ditches,  the  bottom  of  which 
is  hardened  with  gravel,  broken  stone,  or  cobbles. 

Some  writers  recommend  that  a surface  of  the  road  on  the  face 
of  hillsides  should  consist  of  a single  slope  inclining  inwards.  This 
form  of  surface  is  advisable  on  sharp  curves,  but  is  of  doubtful 
propriety  elsewhere.  The  only  advantage  of  this  form  is  that  the 
water  from  the  road  is  prevented  from  flowing  down  the  outer  face 
of  the  embankment;  but  the  amount  of  rain  water  falling  upon  one 
half  of  the  road  can  not  have  a very  serious  effect  upon  the  side 
of  the  embankment.  With  a roadway  raised  in  the  center  and  the 
water  draining  off  to  either  side,  the  drainage  will  be  more  effectual 
and  speedy  than  if  the  drainage  of  the  outer  half  must  pass  over 
the  inner  half.  If  the  surface  is  formed  of  one  plane,  the  lower 
half  of  it  will  receive  the  greater  share  of  the  travel;  and  as  it 
will  be  more  poorly  drained,  it  is  nearly  certain  to  wear  hollow. 
This  will  interfere  with  the  surface  drainage;  and  consequently 
a road  with  this  section  will  require  excessive  attention  to  keep  it 
in  good  condition. 

Whatever  the  form  of  the  road  surface,  if  the  hillside  is  steep 
there  should  be  a catch-water  above  the  road  to  prevent  the  water 
from  the  hillside  above  from  flowing  down  on  the  road.  It  should 
be,  say,  6 feet  back  from  the  excavation,  and  should  have  a width 
and  depth  according  to  the  amount  of  water  to  be  intercepted. 

Maintaining  the  Crown.  Proper  maintenance  is  as  important 
as  good  construction.  A distinction  should  be  made  between  main- 
tenance and  repairing.  The  former  keeps  the  road  always  in  good 
condition;  the  latter  makes  it  so  only  occasionally.  If  the  road  is 
not  properly  maintained,  it  deteriorates  in  a geometrical  ratio— 
a small  depression  fills  with  water  and  soon  becomes  a mud  hole 
which  traffic  makes  deeper  and  deeper,  or  an  obstructed  side  ditch 
forces  the  water  to  run  down  the  center  of  the  road  and  gullies 


19 


•out  the  surface.  A defect  which  could  be  remedied  in  the  begin- 
ning with  a shovelful  of  earth  or  a minute’s  time,  if  neglected  may 
require  a wagon  load  of  earth  or  an  hour’s  time,  besides  being  in 
the  meantime  an  annoyance  or  a danger  to  traffic.  The  better  the 
state  in  which  the  road  is  kept,  the  less  are  the  injuries  to  it  by 
•ordinary  traffic  and  the  weather. 

Water  is  the  natural  enemy  of  good  earth  roads.  The  chief  ob- 
ject of  maintenance  should  be  to  keep  the  surface  smooth  and 
properly  crowned  so  that  rain  water  will  be  shed  promptly  into  the 
side  ditches.  These  should  be  kept  open  so  that  the  water  may  be 
carried  entirely  away  from  the  road. 

Smoothing  the  Surface.  The  most  important  work  in  maintain- 
ing an  earth  road  is  to  keep  the  surface  smooth  so  that  the  rain 
water  will  flow  quickly  in  to  the  side  ditches.  If  the  surface  of 
the  roadway  is  properly  formed  and  kept  smooch,  the  water  will 
be  shed  into  the  side  ditches  and  do  comparatively  little  harm; 
but  if  it  remains  upon  the  surface,  it  will  be  absorbed  and  convert 
the  road  into  mud.  If  all  ruts,  depressions,  and  mud  holes  are  not 
filled  as  soon  as  they  appear,  they  will  retain  the  water  upon  the 
surface,  to  be  removed  only  by  gradually  soaking  into  the  road-bed 
and  by  slowly  evaporating;  and  each  passing  wheel  or  hoof  will 
help  to  destroy  the  road. 

There  are  several  machines  or  devices  which  are  very  effective 
in  filling  ruts  and  depressions,  and  in  keeping  the  surface  smooth. 
The  different  tools  are  best  under  different  conditions. 

Harrow.  In  the  winter  there  frequently  come  times  when  the 
road  is  full  of  holes  and  ruts,  while  the  surface  soil  is  dry  and 
mellow.  This  condition  occurs  most  frequently  when  the  ground 
below  the  surface  is  frozen.  If  at  this  time  a harrow  is  run  over 
the  road,  it  will  fill  up  the  ruts  and  holes  and  leave  the  surface 
comparatively  smooth.  This  improves  the  road  for  present  travel, 
and  gives  a smooth  surface  which  will  greatly  decrease  the  de- 
terioration of  the  road  by  subsequent  rains.  The  ordinary  adjust- 
able farm  harrow  should  be  used,  and  the  teeth  should  be  set  to 
slope  well  back.  The  labor  required  is  not  great,  since  a 12-foot 
harrow  can  be  used,  and  then  a single  round  is  sufficient. 


20 


Often  there  are  only  a few  hours  in  the  middle  of  the  day  when 
the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  sufficiently  to  permit  this  work  to  be 
done,  and  therefore  it  is  best  for  each  farmer  to  harrow  the  road 
adjoining  his  own  land.  The  work  comes  at  a season  of  the  year 
when  the  farmer’s  time  is  usually  not  very  valuable,  and  hence  the 
expense  is  small.  This  method  of  treating  earth  roads  has  proved 
very  beneficial  both  in  securing  good  roads  and  in  preserving  them. 

In  the  summer,  when  the  roads  get  roughed  up,  they  can  be 
materially  improved  at  small  expense  by  running  over  them  with  a 
harrow  having  the  teeth  down  quite  flat.  If  the  roads  are  a little 
muddy,  this  treatment  will  make  them  dry  faster  and  also  make 
them  much  more  pleasant  to  use  after  they  have  dried. 

Railroad  Rail.  In  the  early  spring,  just  after  the  frost  goes  out 
of  the  ground,  earth  roads  are  usually  full  of  deep  ruts.  The  har- 
row is  not  suitable  for  the  work  now  required.  The  object  is 
simply  to  cut  off  the  ridges  and  fill  up  the  ruts,  and  thus  11  break 
the  way”  for  travel.  It  is  well  to  break  the  road  early  in  the 
season,  both  to  accommodate  immediate  travel  and  to  hasten  the 
coming  of  a better  condition  of  the  road.  It  is  much  more  econ- 
omical to  make  the  road  smooth  with  a railroad  rail  or  its  equiva- 
lent than  to  wear  it  down  by  travel. 

A railroad  rail  14  to  16  feet  long  drawn  by  two  two-horse  teams 
has  been  used  with  great  success  in  breaking  down  the  ridges  and 
filling  up  the  ruts.  The  team  is  hitched  to  an  eye  fastened  through 
the  web  2 or  3 feet  from  the  end  of  the  rail.  The  edge  of  the  base 
of  the  rail  serves  as  a cutting  edge.  A 7-inch  steel  I-beam  is 
equally  good. 

When  the  ground  is  mellow  and  loose  after  freezing  and  thawing, 
the  steel  rail  will  smooth  the  road  nearly  as  satisfactorily  as  the 
“road  machine,”  or  scraping  grader,  as  it  is  more  properly  called, 
and  much  more  rapidly,  since  it  cuts  a wider  swath  and  since  the 
draft  is  so  light  that  the  teams  walk  right  along.  One  round  trip 
is  usually  sufficient  for  any  road.  The  time  when  the  work  is 
most  advantageously  done  is  comparatively  limited;  and  therefore 
one  rail  should  not  be  expected  to  cover  too  much  road.  The  cost 
is  so  small  that  one  can  be  provided  for  each  few  miles  of  road — 
the  number  depending  upon  the  climate  and  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
If  roads  are  treated 'in  this  way,  they  will  not  get  so  rough;  and 
hence  will  require  less  work  later  with  the  heavy  road  machine. 


21 


Light  Scraper.  A heavy  stick  of  timber,  say,  6 x 12  inches,  faced 
on  one  side  with  a steel  plate,  and  drawn  bj  a team,  is  very  ef- 
fective in  smoothing  the  way  for  travel.  To  the  top  face  of  the 
timber  should  be  fastened  a frame  by  which  to  hitch  the  team. 
This  frame  should  be  in  the  form  of  a capital  A with  one  leg  a 
little  shorter  than  the  other,  to  cause  the  cutting  edge  to  stand 
obliquely  to  the  line  of  draft.  The  blade  should  be  about  14  inch 
thick,  4 inches  wide,  and  as  long  as  the  timber,  say  6 or  7 feet. 

There  are  many  i 1 road  machines  ” on  the  market,  all  of  which 
are  most  excellent  for  certain  kinds  of  work,  but  most  of  which  are 
too  heavy  for  the  conditions  just  described.  Most  of  the  machines 
are  mounted  upon  four  wheels,  and  of  themselves  are  a considerable 
load  over  roads  which  are  only  a succession  of  ridges,  ruts,  and 
mud  holes;  and  are  heavier  and  more  cumbersome  than  is  neces- 
sary for  the  work  now  under  consideration. 

Split-Log  Drag.  Fig  5 shows  a form  of  road  drag  first  made  by 
Mr.  D.  Ward  King,  of  Missouri.  The  main  pieces  are  the  two 
halves  of  a log  10  or  12  inches  in  diameter  and  7 to  9 feet  long. 


The  log  should  be  some  light  wood,  as  oak  is  too  heavy.  The  cross 
sticks  should  be  about  30  inches  long.  The  ring  or  hook  to  which 
the  double-trees  are  attached  should  be  about  2 or  2l/2  feet  in  front 
of  the  drag.  The  two  pieces  of  the  chain  should  have  such  lengths 
that  the  log  will  stand  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  with  the  direction 
the  team  travels.  The  lower  edge  of  the  front  slab  should  prefer- 
ably be  protected  by  a steel  plate  *4  inch  thick  and.  3 or  4 inches 


22 


wide.  A wide  plank  should  be  laid  upon  the  connecting  sticks,  upon 
which  the  driver  may  stand. 

A drag  similiar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  5 may  be  made  of  a 2^inch 
by  10-inch  or  a 3-inch  by  12-inch  plank  instead  of  the  two  halves 
of  a split  log.  Mr.  King  deserves  credit  for  the  intelligence  and 
persistency  with  which  he  has  advocated  the  use  of  the  drag  in 
keeping  smooth  the  surface  of  an  earth  road.  If  the  surface  of 
the  road  is  kept  smooth,  the  rain  water  is  speedily  drained  into 
the  side  ditches  and  besides  the  road  is  always  pleasant  to  drive 
upon. 


